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Delivery infrastructure
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Batteries rely on the electric grid. They are placed at the point of generation, the point of delivery, or somewhere in between, and may offer better delivery of energy over the infrastructure.
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Hydrogen can take advantage of natural gas infrastructure, even if demand for natural gas wanes. This infrastructure includes trillions of cubic feet of underground storage, which will have to be evaluated for permeability for hydrogen on a case-by-case basis.
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Infrastructure capacity to support using this technology
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This infrastructure is at or above capacity on peak days in much of the U.S., and especially in many neighborhoods. Putting two to three times the energy on the grid will require the distribution system to be largely rebuilt. Most distribution circuits are sized to support approximately 20% of residences having an electric vehicle charger. This estimate is based on modeling and using the time from arrival home from work until time to return to work the next day. The transmission system was designed to support current central plant locations, and it suffers capacity losses when those plants are decommissioned. Much of the system will require technology like synchronous condensers to retain current capacity, and could require doubling or tripling capacity in the transition to all-electric loads.
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Pipelines are being shut down to minimize fossil fuel use, and utilities are being denied permits to build new or replacement lines. New England has been cut off from the rest of the U.S. by New York’s aggressive stance in opposition to new pipelines. Liquids pipelines can be converted to hydrogen in a similar fashion to converting natural gas pipelines. The distribution system in communities is undersized to fuel vehicles at home, but with hydrogen’s short refuel times, gas stations could be converted to hydrogen. Additionally, some local hydrogen could be produced from excess local electricity when available.
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Typical cycle to upgrade the infrastructure
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Substation and distribution systems typically receive upgrades or rebuilds every 40-80 years. Based on 2019 FERC Form-1 analysis, if you use current allocated funding levels, the rebuild rate for substations would be once every 200 years while distribution circuits would be once every 150 years. All of the infrastructure is continuously maintained, but major capacity upgrades only happen when the load has already increased and the circuit is over capacity. Typical upgrade time from start to finish is two to five years for distribution, up to 20 years for transmission, and three to seven years for substations.
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Most of the natural gas infrastructure in the U.S. is too new — built after World War II, generally less than 75 years old — to have a good understanding of the actual systemwide rebuild requirements.
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Time to upgrade the infrastructure using this storage mechanism to support the demand
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Assuming regulators are onboard with the upgrades to transmission and distribution, an optimistic time frame is 30-50 years to remove the larger barriers to electrification.
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Given that natural gas infrastructure can be repurposed, few barriers exist that would require major rebuilds. Initially hydrogen can be mixed with natural gas without issue, but as the blend shifts progressively closer to pure hydrogen, there will be a need to find a sealant for the system to prevent embrittlement in harder steels, as well as in some of the plastics used. Weldments and joints are also areas where work may be needed.
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Storage time
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Most batteries today are being built for four to eight hours of storage, representing typical day/night cycling. Most batteries must be cycled 100-1,000 times a year to make back the capital investment. Flow batteries promise longer storage times with a lower cost of energy the more hours they operate, provided the cycle count stays the same.
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Hydrogen can be held indefinitely in storage until needed. Natural gas storage can be repurposed to store hydrogen after evaluation for porosity.
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Regulatory hurdles
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Regulators require the electric grid to be “used and useful,” so building capacity into current projects to support future electrification is rarely allowed.
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There are myths about hydrogen that pose issues with some regulatory bodies. Current regulations that prohibit new buildings from connecting to the natural gas system and anti-pipeline laws and regulations prevent the system from being able to serve all needs.
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Safety
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Batteries can fail in a spectacular fashion. NFPA 855 and other standards mandate upgrades to minimize the impacts of these failures.
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Unlike natural gas, which will fill a basement first, hydrogen is lighter than air and moves upward. Fires can occur, similar to natural gas. Because of the small size of its molecules, hydrogen can escape through sealants, pipe walls and other materials. Hydrogen embrittlement is an issue that must be addressed.
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Waste and recycling
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Lithium-ion batteries are not recyclable presently. They are smelted for the metals, but 40% or more of the chemicals are lost when the smelter burns the battery. In some batteries, this results in toxic gases, while in others no toxic compounds are formed. For lead-acid batteries (the largest segment of the category), 99% of the battery can be recovered through recycling and reuse.
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Depending on the process, hydrogen production has little or no waste to speak of. Most of the waste is polymers, which can be recycled, similar to soda bottles, if the right processes are used.
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Losses in holding energy for 90-270 days
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Lithium-ion batteries lose energy at 0.5% per 30-day period if kept below 20° C. Air conditioning is necessary to keep the batteries cool or higher losses will occur (up to 2% over 40° C), according to Applied Energy.
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Losses in salt caverns are less than 1% over this time period, according to ScienceDirect.
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Vehicle concerns
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Batteries are heavy in comparison to gasoline, which could particularly impact electrification of heavy-duty, long-range transportation. Batteries also have caught on fire in accidents in the past.
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Hydrogen stored in metal hydrides is similar in weight to gasoline per BTU and is not a fire hazard.
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Environmental issues
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Battery materials are in some cases rare, and mining methods can have serious environmental impacts.
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Hydrogen returns to water vapor when used. The production equipment is durable, mostly made of steel and other industrial metals.
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Storing efficiency
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Lithium-ion batteries are up to 95% efficient in charging.
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Green hydrogen production can be as much as 85% efficient, according to research from Strategic Analysis Inc. and in Materials Science for Energy Technologies.
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Who is backing this path?
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Backers include some automotive companies, electric utilities, renewable developers, and manufacturing companies with products that would gain from the use of batteries.
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Backers include large energy producers, some automotive companies, construction and agricultural equipment producers, truck manufacturers, gas station franchisors, gas utilities, and manufacturing companies with products that would gain from the use of hydrogen.
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